Techno-economic and environmental assessment of freight transport : insights from different technological and sustainability perspectives

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🔬研究者:Provides comprehensive techno-economic models and assessments for zero-emission freight technologies, useful for further research.

🏢実務担当者:Offers insights on cost competitiveness and infrastructure profitability, aiding fleet operators and charging point operators in investment decisions.

🏛政策担当者:Highlights the need for clear subsidy plans, hydrogen economy support, and targeted infrastructure subsidies, informing policy design.

In the global effort to combat climate change, the transportation sector in particular is facing significant challenges in meeting its carbon emission targets. While passenger cars are responsible for the majority of carbon emissions in Europe (approximately 61%), light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty vehicles contribute significantly to the overall emissions in the transportation sector (approximately 12% and 27%, respectively), despite making up only approximately 10% and 2%, respectively, of all road vehicles. Battery-electric vehicles appear to be a viable solution for decarbonizing the passenger car market, as evidenced by sales numbers from previous years. In contrast, the decarbonization of the road freight transport sector, and heavy-duty vehicles in particular, remains a more ambitious undertaking and requires more extensive research in fields such as powertrain types and their environmental impact, infrastructure expansion, and circular economy strategies.To address the issue of increasing carbon emissions in the transportation sector, the European Commission has introduced a series of regulations aimed at reducing carbon emissions in the passenger car and freight transportation sectors. However, a transformation must occur not only from the vehicle perspective but also in several adjacent industries and fields, involving all stakeholders in the ongoing transformation. Consequently, a multidisciplinary approach is essential, encompassing considerations such as infrastructure, circular economy strategies, and economic welfare. This dissertation proposes a research framework that investigates the financial feasibility of technologies in the field of zero-emission freight transportation. In particular, the most promising contenders for decarbonization in recent years—fuel-cell electric vehicles and battery-electric vehicles, along with their infrastructure, components, circularity potential, and societal benefits—are explored. Overall, four research papers are presented in this dissertation. While Research Paper 1: External costs of battery-electric and fuel cell electric vehicles for heavy-duty applications (RP1) covers the external costs of different powertrain types, Research Paper 2: An economic and environmental analysis of retrofitted fuel cell electric heavy-duty trucks (RP2) clarifies the economic potential of heavy-duty vehicle retrofitting approaches, Research Paper 3: Techno-economic analysis of proton exchange membrane fuel cell recycling (RP3) reveals the economic feasibility of proton exchange membrane fuel cell recycling, and Research Paper 4: Techno-economic assessment of public charging: A European comparison of AC and DC infrastructure (RP4) analyzes the current status of a profitable charging infrastructure operation in Europe and points to ways of using new grid system concepts to improve efficiencies and profitability. The transition to zero-emission freight transportation offers societal and environmental benefits, as it reduces greenhouse gas emissions and pollution compared to the status quo of internal combustion engine vehicles. Consequently, this transition will result in a reduction of external costs. However, the extent to which the external costs of battery-electric and fuel cell electric vehicles will reduce societal costs remains uncertain. RP1 investigates the environmental impacts and external costs of diesel, battery-electric, and fuel cell electric heavy-duty vehicles with several different energy source scenarios and well-to-wheel pathways for 19 different types of emissions. The article's findings indicate that battery-electric trucks generally exhibit the lowest external costs. However, due to the substantial weight of the battery, the effective payload capacity of battery-electric trucks is significantly reduced when operating at maximum capacity. In select scenarios and energy contexts, the deployment of fuel cell electric trucks may emerge as a more cost-effective solution, particularly in terms of mitigating external costs. A critical component of effective policymaking is a comprehensive consideration of emissions, which is essential for allocating targeted funding to zero-emission vehicles.The economic viability of purchasing and operating battery-electric and fuel cell electric trucks has been the focus of numerous scientific studies and reports. However, the latter propulsion method is not currently available on the market. An alternative approach involves the replacement of the powertrain, a process referred to as “retrofitting”. In the case of RP2, the economic, environmental, and combined impacts of retrofitting heavy-duty vehicles with fuel cell powertrains are analyzed using a bottom-up approach to vehicle components. A multi-period retrofitting analysis is conducted, incorporating various time points throughout a vehicle's lifetime for retrofitting. These time frames are determined by a comprehensive evaluation of factors, including, but not limited to, total cost of ownership, life cycle assessment, and total cost of carbon abatement. A critical factor in this analysis is the economic and environmental impacts of hydrogen production and distribution methods. A price of approximately 5 €/$kg_{H2}$ was calculated to ensure the competitiveness of fuel cell electric trucks with diesel internal combustion engine vehicles. However, this is only valid if subsidies are granted for the purchase or retrofitting of such a vehicle. A primary finding of this research paper suggests that policymakers should clearly articulate their plans for the prospective continuation of grant subsidies and the fostering of a hydrogen economy. This would enable fleet operators to reduce the costs and risks associated with purchasing fuel cell electric vehicles. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, like batteries, are a significant factor in the overall cost of fuel cell electric vehicles. Regulations from the European Union mandate the recycling or reuse of specific materials utilized in vehicle manufacturing. The manufacturing of proton exchange membrane fuel cells necessitates the use of precious metals and other valuable materials, including platinum and aluminum. RP3 employs a techno-economic approach to model the recycling of proton exchange membrane fuel cells, incorporating disassembly and four distinct metallurgical paths. The assessment of costs and profitability of the operation is conducted through the application of the total cost of ownership and net present value method. As one of the four process paths, an innovative hydrometallurgical path was analyzed that utilizes ozone as a leaching agent and incorporates a more complex setup. First, this path was found to scale superiorly in comparison to more conventional methods of pyro- and hydrometallurgy. Second, another significant finding demonstrates the central role of platinum loading in determining profitability. A decline in platinum loading in the future could potentially imperil the economic viability of the recycling process. Third, a monetary integration of saved Scope 3 emissions, based on carbon prices from the European Emission Trading System, attributable to obtaining secondary platinum, should be facilitated by regulatory frameworks. To facilitate the widespread adoption of battery-electric vehicles and trucks, it is necessary to expand the charging infrastructure accordingly. However, the public charging infrastructure in the European Union currently exhibits insufficient expansion. The economic viability of charging infrastructure could serve as a catalyst for the expansion of electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Consequently, the objective of RP4 is to conduct a techno-economic assessment of public charging infrastructure from the perspective of a charging point operator. The primary question guiding this study is that of determining at which break-even points of energy demand in a charging station a positive net present value occurs. The net present value is employed to estimate the break-even point. The assessment includes five charging power levels and two grid systems, namely alternating current and direct current, which represent an emerging technology in charging infrastructure as microgrids. The charging stations are characterized by a varying number of charging spots and are evaluated for the majority of European countries using real-world, daily charging data. Direct current grids have been shown to exhibit lower energy demands than alternating current grids, particularly for higher charging power levels and a greater number of charging spots per charging station. Additionally, direct current grids exhibit enhanced resilience to fluctuating electricity prices due to their superior efficiency. The article's findings suggest several implications for policymakers. These include, in particular, the necessity of improving data availability on charging prices, tangible support from manufacturers to increase innovation and reduce costs, and a more targeted approach to subsidies for each European country. This dissertation contributes to the existing body of literature and provides insights for policymakers, as well as decision-makers and executives in the industry, by offering clear indications of the challenges and obstacles that still need to be overcome to establish successful business models and markets in the field of zero-emission freight transportation. Methodologically, it proposes new approaches to assess technologies in the transportation sector holistically. These include different manners of emission cost valuation in the transportation sector and the application of circular economy strategies to specific use cases. Finally, recommendations and guidelines are provided for policymakers to improve existing regulations and lay the groundwork for new policies.

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